Sepsis - blood poisoning, symptoms and causes, treatment

Sepsis is the most severe, generalized form of the infectious process, which develops either with a high pathogenicity of the pathogen or with an insufficient response of the body's defense systems. International consensus recommends using the following definition: sepsis is a life-threatening dysfunction of internal organs caused by dysregulation of the body's response to infection. With sepsis, general intoxication syndrome, thrombohemorrhagic syndrome (hemorrhages) and damage to internal organs are observed.

Causes of sepsis
Types of sepsis
The first signs and symptoms of sepsis
Diagnosis of sepsis
Stages of sepsis development
Clinical classification of sepsis by stages
Treatment of sepsis
Complications of sepsis
Prognosis for sepsis

Causes of sepsis

Sepsis can be caused by most microorganisms known in epidemiology, including bacteria, viruses (including seasonal influenza viruses), fungi, and parasites. Typically, the infectious agent enters the body from the external environment. Under certain conditions, for example, with immunodeficiencies, the disease can develop from the natural, opportunistic flora of the body, which is normally present in every person. [1]

The presence of infection in itself does not guarantee the development of sepsis. Additional conditions are needed that will lead to generalization of the process and a pathological response of the body. The likelihood of such events increases in the following cases:

The patient's age is over 75 years.
Performing surgeries or invasive procedures.
Presence of injuries and burns.
Immune system disorders - AIDS, cancer, chemotherapy, the need to use immunosuppressive therapy (for example, after organ transplantation), the need to take high doses of glucocorticosteroids.
Long-term treatment in a hospital setting.
Availability of catheters, cannulas, probes and other invasive devices.
Pregnancy and childbirth.
Chemical dependence - alcoholism, drug addiction.
The presence of chronic diseases - chronic renal failure, respiratory failure, diabetes mellitus and much more.

The cardiovascular system

Against the background of advanced dental diseases, a number of heart diseases can develop:

infective endocarditis - inflammation of the heart valves due to infection, which enters them through the bloodstream from the affected tooth, more often occurs when the immune system is weakened;
heart failure - periodontal inflammation doubles the risk of its occurrence;
heart attack, stroke. Due to inflammation and the transfer of bacteria through the bloodstream, atherosclerotic plaques form on the walls of blood vessels. The plaque clogs the vessel and a blood clot forms. If it comes off, a stroke or heart attack occurs.

Untreated caries and constant inflammation in the oral cavity increase the risk of cardiovascular diseases by 70%.

Types of sepsis

Depending on the location of the primary source of infection, primary (cryptogenic) and secondary sepsis are distinguished. In primary cases, the source of infection cannot be determined. In secondary sepsis, such a focus is present. Depending on its location, there are:

Percutaneous sepsis. The primary focus is on the skin; these can be wounds, burns, purulent skin diseases (purulent abscesses, boils, etc.).
Odontogenic sepsis. The cause of its development can be caries, pulpitis, periodontitis, maxillary osteomyelitis and other diseases of the dental system.
Otogenic sepsis. The primary focus is the inflammatory process in the ear. As a rule, these are purulent otitis media of the middle ear.
Gynecological sepsis - the primary focus is located in the woman’s genital organs.
Surgical sepsis - develops as a result of infection of a surgical wound or infection during invasive procedures. [2-4]

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Viruses

Viruses feed on the energy of cells, that is, they seem to de-energize them.

Viruses very clearly maintain territory, that is, each of them lays claim to a specific organ or system. Even different types of the same type of virus have their own localization. In the course of my medical work, I became convinced that your immune system is brought to the point of exhaustion (not to be confused with tension) by viruses and only viruses.

DNA viruses: pycnoviruses, iridoviruses, herpesviruses, adenoviruses, parvoviruses, hepadnaviruses, hepatitis B.

RNA viruses: paramyxoviruses, rhabdoviruses, arenaviruses, orthomyxoviruses, retroviruses, reoviruses, flaviviruses, calciviruses, hepatitis A, C, D, E, G.

Clinical manifestations: respiratory viral infections, pneumonia (pneumonia), maculopapular rashes on the skin and mucous membranes, blistering rashes, meningitis, encephalitis, hepatitis, diarrhea, conjunctivitis, genital lesions (herpes simplex virus, adenovirus, HIV), congenital and perinatal (postpartum) lesions (cytomegalovirus, herpes, rubella virus, enteroviruses, HIV).

The first signs and symptoms of sepsis

Identifying the first signs of sepsis can be difficult, even for specialists. This is due to the fact that, firstly, this syndrome develops against the background of an existing pathology, which can have a wide variety of symptoms, and secondly, in the presence of immunodeficiency, the clinical picture can be erased. However, there are some symptoms that suggest the onset of sepsis:

Increase or decrease in body temperature - above 38 and below 36 degrees.
Pressure drop below operating value.
Increased heart rate.
Increased frequency of breathing movements (shortness of breath).
Decreased amount of urine excreted.
General weakness, exhaustion.
Impaired consciousness or behavior.

Particular attention is paid to the occurrence of these signs in chronic patients, in the presence of leukopenia, cancer, and in patients who have undergone trauma or surgery. If at least 2-3 of these symptoms occur, you should immediately contact your doctor.

Periodontitis

In the absence of professional treatment, pulp inflammation progresses, and the infection spreads through the apical (apical) opening of the root to the adjacent periodontal tissue. Symptoms of this complication:

Acute pain. In the serous form of periodontitis, they are aching in nature; with the development of suppuration, the pain becomes throbbing, “tearing.”
Reaction to irritating factors. Pain when exposed to cold, heat, or pressure on the tooth.
Change in gum color. The mucous tissue may darken and acquire a bluish tint.
Deterioration of general condition. Increased body temperature and sleep disturbance are possible.

In some cases, periodontitis is almost asymptomatic and is complicated by the formation of granulomas and cysts.

Diagnosis of sepsis

Timely diagnosis of sepsis is crucial for the patient’s recovery. The earlier treatment is started, the greater the chances of success. The diagnosis is made on the basis of clinical examination and laboratory and instrumental examination.

Clinical criteria:

Body temperature is more than 38 degrees or less than 36 degrees.
Heart rate is more than 90 or exceeds the age norm.
Respiration rate more than 20 times per minute.
Presence of edema.
Confusion.
An increase in blood glucose levels of more than 7.7 µmol/l in the absence of diabetes.
Disturbance of hemodynamic processes - a decrease in systolic blood pressure of less than 90 mmHg, or its decrease by more than 40 mmHg. from the usual meaning. [5,6]

Laboratory criteria

A general blood test is performed with a leukocyte count and platelet count. In case of sepsis, leukocytosis is determined by more than 12*109/l or leukopenia when the number of leukocytes is below 4*109/l. There is also the release of immature forms of granulocytes into the bloodstream and a decrease in the number of platelets.

A biochemical blood test shows an increase in C-reactive protein, creatinine, and bilirubin. But these are nonspecific signs that can be observed in other diseases. Therefore, the search for more informative diagnostic methods continues.

Today, the main such markers are procalcitonin, presepsin, and CRP. Based on this laboratory indicator, a diagnosis is made and the dynamics of the disease are monitored.

Bacteriological culture

Detection of microorganisms in the blood is an important, but not mandatory, manifestation of sepsis. Even with the use of the most modern diagnostic systems and careful adherence to material sampling techniques, it is possible to isolate the pathogen from the blood in less than half of the cases. Therefore, a negative culture result in the presence of clinical symptoms should not be regarded as the absence of sepsis, and, conversely, the isolation of microorganisms from the blood in the absence of symptoms should be regarded as transient bacteremia or viremia, but not as sepsis.

However, biological studies should in any case be present as one of the stages in diagnosing sepsis for the following reasons:

Possibility of determining the etiology of the pathogen.
Selection or change of antibiotic treatment regimens.
Monitoring the effectiveness of treatment.
In some cases, it allows you to determine the source of infection, for example, catheter-related infection, endocarditis, etc.

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How to treat an abscess

A specialist can easily diagnose a dental abscess. To do this, he needs to examine the patient. The doctor may also prescribe an x-ray in order to exclude medical error when making a diagnosis.

The main goal of treating an abscess is to eliminate the infection by specialists; at the same time, you need to be able to save your teeth and eliminate complications.

Doctors often use drainage of the abscess. To do this, a procedure such as tooth root canal is performed. Dead parts of the damaged tooth root are also removed. Next, the tooth is filled and, if necessary, a crown is placed. Drainage can be done by making an incision in the swollen gum if a tooth has been removed.

If an infection has developed and saving the tooth is problematic, the doctor will remove it.

Sometimes a modern treatment method is used, namely low-intensity laser. This laser allows you to open an abscess and drain it with less pain.

Also, specialists may prescribe a course of antibiotics and rinsing to reduce pain and discomfort.

Prevention

Methods for preventing abscess are simple. They include maintaining oral hygiene, timely treatment of diseases, periodic visits to the dentist, and avoiding any injuries to the mouth.

A disease such as a tooth abscess should not be ignored. If you have the slightest suspicion of an abscess, you should not delay it and you should immediately contact a dental clinic.

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Stages of sepsis development

The development and course of the septic process is individual and depends both on the properties of the pathogen and on the characteristics of the patient’s body. However, several phases of the course of this disease can be distinguished:

Voltage phase. In response to the introduction of the pathogen, the body’s defense systems are activated and mobilized, in particular the pituitary-adrenal system is activated.
Catabolic phase. The patient's condition deteriorates due to metabolic disturbances. The processes of metabolism of proteins, fats and carbohydrates are enhanced, and they are extracted from the “depot”. Disorders of water-electrolyte metabolism and acid-base status also develop.
Anabolic phase. At this time, recovery processes begin. This primarily concerns structural proteins.
Rehabilitation phase. During this period, further restoration of metabolic processes occurs. In some cases, complete recovery is not possible.

As for the duration of the disease, everything is again individual. In some, stronger patients, sepsis is relieved within 3-4 weeks, in others it can last for years, periodically subsiding and flaring up.

In addition, when diagnosing sepsis, the following conditions are distinguished.

Toxic-resorptive fever

Toxic-resorptive fever is a condition that develops when bacterial toxins or tissue decay products are absorbed from the primary pathological focus. As a rule, this is typical for bacterial infections of wounds, catheters, etc. There are common typical syndromes that accompany infectious processes - fever, changes in general blood and urine tests (leukocytosis, proteinuria). Once the primary lesion is eliminated, the patient's condition stabilizes.

Septicemia

Septicemia is a form of sepsis in which there is a pronounced intoxication syndrome, hyperergy (increased reactivity of the body) and a rapid course. Septic foci are either minimally expressed or absent. This form of sepsis is more typical for children in the first years of life. The clinical picture is more characterized by general manifestations:

Hemolytic jaundice, accompanied by yellowing of the skin and sclera.
Rash. It first appears as small pink dots, which grow and merge with each other, forming pale pink or purple spots.
In some patients, elements of the rash may become blistered or ulcerated. With deep lesions, subcutaneous fatty tissue may be affected with the development of phlegmonous inflammation.
Hemorrhagic syndrome - hemorrhages in internal organs.

Septicopyemia

Septicopyemia is a form of sepsis in which in the body, in addition to general intoxication, metastatic abscesses begin to appear in organs and tissues, which are the result of bacterial embolism. Most often, the first abscesses are found in the lungs, and then the process spreads to other organs: liver, liver, heart, meningeal membranes, synovial membranes. Abscesses can break through and cause the development of pleural empyema, phlegmon, peritonitis, etc.

Key Recommendations

A. Initial therapy of sepsis

Sepsis and septic shock are medical emergencies and therefore initial therapy and resuscitation measures must be started immediately! (best practice guideline – BPS).
Patients with hypoperfusion should receive at least 30 mL/kg intravenous crystalloid solutions during the first 3 hours of resuscitation (strong recommendation, low-quality evidence).
Subsequent additional fluid resuscitation is adjusted based on frequent reassessment of hemodynamic status (best practice recommendation - BPS).
Further assessment of the patient's hemodynamics (eg, cardiovascular function) to determine the type of shock is recommended when the clinical picture does not lead to a clear diagnosis (best practice recommendation - BPS).
In patients with signs of septic shock who require vasopressors, the initial target mean arterial pressure (MAP) should be 65 mmHg. Art. (strong recommendation, moderate quality of evidence).
Dynamic hemodynamic parameters, as opposed to static ones, can be used as a predictor of response to fluid therapy, where possible (weak recommendations, low quality of evidence).
Resuscitation efforts should also aim to normalize lactate levels in patients with sepsis/septic shock, as a major marker of tissue hypoperfusion (weak recommendation, low-quality evidence).

B. Screening for sepsis and improving its quality

It is recommended that hospitals establish a program to improve the quality of care for sepsis, which would include screening for sepsis in patients with severe illness and in high-risk patients (best practice recommendation - BPS).

C. Diagnosis of sepsis

Microbiological culture samples (including blood) should be obtained before initiating antibacterial treatment in patients with suspected sepsis/septic shock; as long as it does not significantly delay the initiation of antimicrobial therapy (best practice recommendation - BPS).

D. Antibacterial therapy

Intravenous antimicrobials should be started immediately after identification of the causative agent and/or within 1 hour of the first symptoms of sepsis/septic shock (strong recommendation, moderate quality of evidence, assessment applies to both conditions).
Empiric antimicrobial therapy in patients with sepsis/septic shock is recommended, including at least two classes of broad-spectrum antibiotics to target a broader range of microorganisms or suspected pathogens, including bacteria, potential fungi, and viruses (strong recommendation, moderate quality evidence).
Adjustment, in the form of tapering of empirical antibiotic therapy, should be made if the pathogen and its susceptibility are identified and/or if there is clinical improvement (best practice recommendation - BPS).
Prophylactic use of antibacterial drugs in patients with severe inflammatory diseases of non-infectious origin (severe pancreatitis, thermal skin burns, etc.) is not recommended (best practice recommendation - BPS).
Antimicrobial dosing strategy should be based on generally accepted pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic principles, as well as taking into account organ function and certain characteristics of antimicrobials in patients with sepsis or septic shock (best practice recommendation - BPS).
In the case of septic shock, initial empiric combination antibiotic therapy (using at least two classes of antibiotics) should be directed at the most likely pathogen (weak recommendation, low-quality evidence).
Combination antibiotic therapy for neutropenic fever/bacteremia is not recommended in routine clinical practice (strong recommendation, moderate quality of evidence).
The use of combination antibiotic therapy is not recommended for the chronic treatment of most other serious infections, including bacteremia and sepsis without signs of shock (weak recommendation, low-quality evidence).
The use of combination antibiotic therapy is not recommended for the routine treatment of neutropenic fever/bacteremia (strong recommendation, moderate quality of evidence).
When combination antimicrobial therapy is initially used to treat septic shock, it is recommended that it be de-escalated or discontinued within the first few days in response to clinical improvement and/or evidence of resolution of the infection. This applies to both etiotropic (positive culture of the pathogen) and empirical (in case of negative bacteriological study) antibiotic therapy (best practice recommendation - BPS).
The adequate duration of antibiotic therapy for most infections associated with sepsis/septic shock is 7–10 days (weak recommendation, low-quality evidence).
Longer use of antibacterial drugs may be justified in patients with a slow clinical response to therapy; bacteremia caused by Staphylococcus aureus; some fungal and viral infections, as well as in patients with neutropenia (weak recommendation, low quality of evidence).
In certain categories of patients, shorter courses of antibiotic therapy are possible, for example, in patients with a rapid clinical response, as well as after adequate sanitation of the source of infection in the case of abdominal / urinary sepsis or in uncomplicated pyelonephritis (weak recommendation, low quality of evidence).
Daily assessment of the ability to de-escalate antimicrobial therapy in patients with sepsis/septic shock is recommended (best practice guidelines - BPS).
Procalcitonin levels can be used to assess the duration of antimicrobial therapy in patients with sepsis (weak recommendation, low-quality evidence).
Procalcitonin levels can be used to predict discontinuation of empirical antibiotic therapy in patients who initially presented with symptoms of sepsis, but no evidence was found for localized infection (weak recommendation, low-quality evidence).

E. Sanitation of the source of infection

It is recommended that in patients with sepsis/septic shock, the specific anatomical source of infection be identified and treated and that any necessary management of that source be undertaken as soon as the diagnosis is established (Best Practice Guidelines - BPS).
It is recommended that any intravascular devices that may be a possible cause of sepsis/septic shock be immediately removed, but only after another device has been placed (Best Practice Guidelines - BPS).

F. Infusion therapy

It is recommended that fluid therapy be used as long as necessary in terms of basic hemodynamic parameters and their improvement over time (best practice guidelines - BPS).
The choice of fluid therapy should be crystalloid solutions, both initially in the treatment of sepsis/septic shock and subsequently for intravascular fluid resuscitation (strong recommendation, moderate quality of evidence).
It is possible to use other balanced crystalloid solutions or saline as fluid therapy in patients with sepsis/septic shock (weak recommendation, low-quality evidence).
Albumin may be used as a primary addition to crystalloid fluids during fluid resuscitation in patients with sepsis/septic shock for intravascular fluid resuscitation, particularly when patients require significant amounts of crystalloid (weak recommendation, low-quality evidence).
The use of hydroxyethyl starch (HES) for intravascular fluid volume replacement in patients with sepsis/septic shock is not recommended (strong recommendation, high-quality evidence).
Crystalloid solutions should be used preferentially over gelatin in fluid therapy for sepsis/septic shock (weak recommendation, low-quality evidence).

G. Vasoactive drugs

Norepinephrine is the first-line vasopressor drug of choice (strong recommendation, moderate quality of evidence).
It is possible to add either vasopressin (up to 0.03 units/min) (weak recommendation, moderate-quality evidence) or epinephrine (weak recommendation, low-quality evidence) to norepinephrine to increase mean arterial pressure to target, as well as adding vasopressin (up to 0.03 units/min) (weak recommendation, moderate quality of evidence) to reduce the dose of norepinephrine.
As an alternative to norepinephrine, dopamine may be recommended as a vasopressor only in certain patients (eg, patients at low risk of tachyarrhythmia and absolute/relative bradycardia) (weak recommendation, low quality of evidence).
The use of low-dose dopamine to preserve renal function is not recommended (strong recommendation, high-quality evidence).
The use of dobutamine is recommended when persistent tissue hypoperfusion persists despite adequate fluid resuscitation and the use of vasopressors (weak recommendation, low-quality evidence).
All patients who require vasopressors should have arterial access (catheter) when possible and resources available (weak recommendation, very low-quality evidence).

N. Corticosteroids

In patients with septic shock, the use of intravenous hydrocortisone is not recommended unless adequate fluid loading and vasopressor therapy are sufficient to stabilize hemodynamics. When, despite measures taken, stabilization does not occur, hydrocortisone 200 mg/day may be prescribed (weak recommendation, low-quality evidence).

I. Blood components

In adult patients, red blood cell (RBC) transfusion is recommended only when hemoglobin levels are <70 g/L and in the absence of other aggravating conditions such as myocardial ischemia, severe hypoxemia, or acute blood loss (strong recommendation, high-quality evidence).
The use of erythropoietin for the treatment of anemia associated with sepsis is not recommended (strong recommendation, moderate quality of evidence).
The use of fresh frozen plasma (FFP) for the correction of coagulation abnormalities in the absence of bleeding or planned invasive procedures is not recommended (weak recommendation, very low-quality evidence).
Prophylactic platelet transfusion is indicated when the platelet level is >10,000 mm3 (10x109/L) in the absence of obvious signs of bleeding or when the level is >20,000 mm3 (20x109/L) in patients at high risk of bleeding. A higher blood platelet level >50,000 mm3 (50 x 109/L) is acceptable during active bleeding, surgery or invasive procedures (weak recommendation, very low quality of evidence).

J. Immunoglobulins

The use of intravenous immunoglobulin in patients with sepsis/septic shock is not recommended (weak recommendation, low-quality evidence).

K. Hemosorption

There are no recommendations regarding hemosorption.

L. Anticoagulants

The use of antithrombin in the treatment of sepsis/septic shock is not recommended (strong recommendation, moderate quality of evidence).
There are no recommendations for the use of thrombomodulin or heparin in the treatment of sepsis/septic shock.

M. Artificial pulmonary ventilation (ALV)

For sepsis-induced acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) in adults, a target tidal volume of 6 ml/kg body weight (BW) is recommended versus 12 ml/kg BW (strong recommendation, high-quality evidence).
In adults with severe ARDS due to sepsis, it is recommended to use an upper limit of plateau pressure (30 cmH2O) versus a higher plateau pressure (strong recommendation, moderate quality of evidence).
It is recommended to use high positive end expiratory pressure (PEEP) over low positive end expiratory pressure (PEEP) in adults with moderate/severe ARDS due to sepsis (weak recommendation, moderate quality of evidence).
In adult patients, the use of the alveolar opening maneuver is recommended for severe ARDS caused by sepsis (weak recommendation, moderate quality of evidence).
For patients with severe ARDS caused by sepsis, the optimal position is a prone position compared to the supine position and a PaO2 / FIO2 ratio <150 mmHg. (strong recommendation, moderate quality of evidence).
The use of high-frequency ventilation is not recommended in adults with ARDS due to sepsis (strong recommendation, moderate quality of evidence).
There are no recommendations for the use of noninvasive mechanical ventilation in adult patients with ARDS caused by sepsis.
It is recommended to use muscle relaxants (NMBAs) for ≤ 48 hours in adults with ARDS caused by sepsis and PaO2/FIO2 ratio <150 mmHg. (weak recommendation, moderate quality of evidence).
Conservative fluid resuscitation is recommended in patients with established sepsis-related ARDS who do not have evidence of tissue hypoperfusion (strong recommendation, moderate quality of evidence).
The use of ß2-agonists in the treatment of ARDS caused by sepsis in the absence of symptoms of bronchospasm is not recommended (strong recommendation, moderate quality of evidence).
In routine practice, pulmonary artery catheter placement is not recommended in patients with ARDS due to sepsis (strong recommendation, high-quality evidence).
It is recommended to use low versus high tidal volume in patients with respiratory failure due to sepsis but without symptoms of ARDS (weak recommendation, low-quality evidence).
To prevent aspiration, as well as to prevent the development of ventilator-associated pneumonia in patients receiving mechanical ventilation, a supine position with the head elevated at 30 to 45 degrees is recommended (strong recommendation, low-quality evidence).
Spontaneous breathing training is recommended for patients with sepsis who are mechanically ventilated but ready to wean (strong recommendation, high-quality evidence).
It is recommended to use a mechanically ventilated weaning protocol in patients with respiratory failure due to sepsis who are ready to wean (strong recommendation, moderate quality of evidence).

N. Sedation and analgesia

In mechanically ventilated patients with sepsis, it is recommended to minimize prolonged or intermittent sedation, targeting specific titration points (best practice recommendation - BPS).

A. Glucose control

In the intensive care unit, in patients with sepsis, it is recommended to use a documented approach to monitoring blood glucose levels - in the case when the glycemia on two tests performed is > 10 mmol/l, it is recommended to start insulin injections. This approach would maintain an upper blood glucose level of ≤ 10 mmol/L rather than an upper blood glucose level of ≤ 6.1 mmol/L (strong recommendation, high-quality evidence).
Glycemic monitoring is recommended every 1 to 2 hours until glucose levels and insulin infusion rates are stable, then every 4 hours in patients receiving insulin infusions (best practice recommendation - BPS).
Interpretation of glucose levels from capillary blood testing should be done with caution, as such measurements may not accurately reflect the true level of glycemia in both arterial blood and plasma (best practice guideline - BPS).
When the patient has arterial access (catheter) for glucose testing, it is recommended to use arterial blood rather than capillary blood (weak recommendation, low-quality evidence).

P. Renal replacement therapy

In patients with sepsis and/or acute kidney injury, both long-acting and intermittent renal replacement therapy (RRT) are options (weak recommendation, moderate-quality evidence).
In patients with sepsis and haemodynamic instability, the use of long-acting renal replacement therapy is recommended to control fluid balance (weak recommendation, very low-quality evidence).
In patients with sepsis and/or acute kidney injury, when there are no other indications for dialysis other than high creatinine and oliguria, the use of renal replacement therapy is not recommended (weak recommendation, low quality of evidence).

Q. Bicarbonate infusion

The use of sodium bicarbonate is not recommended to improve hemodynamics or reduce the need for vasopressors in patients with lactic acidosis, pH ≥ 7.15 caused by hypoperfusion (weak recommendation, moderate quality of evidence).

R. Prevention of venous thromboembolism (VTE)

For the prevention of venous thromboembolic complications (VTEC), the use of both unfractionated heparins (UFH) and low molecular weight herparins (LMWH) is recommended, provided there are no contraindications to their use (strong recommendation, moderate quality of evidence).
For the prevention of VTEC, the greatest preference is given to LMWH compared to UFH, provided there are no contraindications to the use of the former (strong recommendation, moderate quality of evidence).
In situations where possible, a combination of drug prophylaxis of VTE with mechanical (physical) prophylaxis is recommended (weak recommendation, low quality of evidence).
The use of mechanical prophylaxis of VTE is recommended when medicinal (pharmacological) is contraindicated (weak recommendation, low quality of evidence).

S. Prevention of steroid ulcers

Steroid ulcer prophylaxis is recommended for patients with sepsis/septic shock at high risk of gastrointestinal bleeding (strong recommendation, low-quality evidence).
The use of both proton pump antagonists (PPIs) and histamine H2 receptor antagonists (H2RAs) is recommended for the prevention of steroid ulcers (weak recommendation, low-quality evidence).
Steroid ulcer prophylaxis is not recommended in the absence of risk factors for gastrointestinal bleeding (BPS).

T. Nutrition

It is not recommended to use parenteral nutrition alone or in combination with enteral nutrition in patients with sepsis/septic shock who can be fed enterally (strong recommendation, moderate quality of evidence).
It is not recommended to use parenteral nutrition alone or in combination with enteral nutrition (but rather start an intravenous glucose infusion as soon as possible and try to establish enteral nutrition) for the first 7 days in severely ill patients with sepsis/septic shock for whom enteral nutrition has previously been impossible (strong). recommendation, moderate quality of evidence).
It is recommended to initiate earlier enteral nutrition rather than intravenous glucose infusion alone in severely ill patients with sepsis/septic shock who can be fed enterally (weak recommendation, low-quality evidence).
It is recommended to use either early low-calorie or early total enteral nutrition in severely ill patients with sepsis/septic shock; If a low-calorie diet is started, the diet should be modified according to the patient's tolerance (weak recommendation, moderate quality of evidence).
The use of omega-3 fatty acids as an immune supplement in severely ill patients with sepsis/septic shock is not recommended (strong recommendation, low-quality evidence).
Routine measurement of gastric residual volume in severely ill patients with sepsis/septic shock is not recommended (weak recommendation, low-quality evidence). However, measurement of gastric residual volume in patients with malabsorption or at high risk of aspiration is acceptable (weak recommendation, very low quality of evidence). Note: This recommendation applies to non-surgical severe patients with sepsis/septic shock.
It is recommended to use prokinetic agents in severely ill patients with sepsis/septic shock and malabsorption (weak recommendation, low-quality evidence).
It is recommended to place an intrastinal (post-pyloric) feeding tube in severely ill patients with sepsis/septic shock with malabsorption or a high risk of aspiration (weak recommendation, low-quality evidence).
The use of intravenous selenium in the treatment of sepsis and septic shock is not recommended (strong recommendation, moderate quality of evidence).
The use of arginine in the treatment of sepsis and septic shock is not recommended (weak recommendation, low quality of evidence).
The use of glutamine in the treatment of sepsis and septic shock is not recommended (strong recommendation, moderate quality of evidence).
There are no recommendations for the use of carnitine in the treatment of sepsis and septic shock.

Clinical classification of sepsis by stages

Clinical staging of sepsis plays an important role, as it helps doctors choose the optimal tactics and achieve the best possible treatment results in each specific case. The following stages are distinguished:

Sepsis is diagnosed when the core temperature (measured on the mucous membranes) of the body rises above 38 degrees or falls below 36 degrees, heart rate 90 bpm or more, respiratory rate 20 bpm or more, or partial pressure of carbon dioxide in arterial blood (PaCO2 ) falls below 32 mm. Hg Art. In this case, the level of leukocytes in the blood rises to more than 12,000/μl or falls below ≤4000/μl, or more than 10% of immature forms appear among them.
Severe sepsis is sepsis that is combined with acute organ dysfunction.
Septic shock is diagnosed when a patient has persistent hypoperfusion (low blood pressure) or tissue hypoperfusion (insufficient blood supply) despite adequate fluid resuscitation.
Multiple organ dysfunction syndrome is a condition in which the patient has organ dysfunction (impaired functioning of internal organs), and its homeostasis cannot be maintained without drug intervention.

How to recognize periostitis?

Adults suffer from flux much more often than children. Note that such inflammation is accompanied by a number of symptoms, so it immediately makes itself felt.

Signs of classic purulent flux:

the mucous membrane hurts a lot
soft periodontal tissues become inflamed and swell. The cheek swells on the side of the localization of the pathological process
lymph nodes increase in size
body temperature rises to +38 degrees

It is worth understanding that periostitis does not go away on its own. Some patients are sure that after the purulent contents flow out of the burst lump, there is no need to treat the inflammation. They say it went away by itself. However, this is a misconception and in this case a dental clinic will definitely be required. After all, it is possible to completely get rid of pus only by installing a special drainage and carrying out certain therapeutic measures prescribed by the doctor. If flux treatment is started on time and carried out correctly, then the pathology can be eliminated in 12-14 days. If the form is advanced, recovery will take more than a month.

Treatment of sepsis

Treatment of sepsis is based on three principles:

Sanitation of the primary lesion. This can be achieved with surgery and/or adequate antibiotic therapy. If a primary lesion is discovered that can be treated surgically, it is necessary to do this as soon as possible. This may include opening and drainage of abscesses, removal of infected invasive devices (catheters, implants, etc.), drainage and lavage of the abdominal cavity, etc.
Antimicrobial therapy is another cornerstone of sepsis treatment, and its timeliness and adequacy are important. For example, if septic shock develops, drugs should be administered within an hour of the onset of symptoms. In this case, the drug must cover the entire spectrum of suspected pathogens and, importantly, penetrate the primary infectious focus. If it is necessary to prescribe combination therapy of several drugs, they are used for no more than 5 days, after which data from biological research methods must be obtained and the treatment regimen must be adjusted. [7]
Ensuring oxygen transport - all clinical manifestations of sepsis are aggravated in conditions of lack of oxygen, so it is very important to control this process. To do this:
- Hemodynamic support - infusion of solutions that ensure replenishment of water and electrolyte balance, medications are prescribed to maintain blood pressure, etc.
Correction of metabolic disorders
- Ensuring the supply of necessary nutrients (proteins, fats, carbohydrates). If the patient is unable to take food or nutritional formulas on his own, replacement therapy is considered.
Detoxification activities. [8-10]

One of the effective ways to treat sepsis is selective sorption on TORAYMYXIN columns. This technique is successfully used in many countries around the world. Currently, more than 200 thousand patients with septic shock and severe forms of sepsis have undergone such treatment. The effectiveness and safety of the technology has been confirmed in clinical studies. [11,12]

Osteomyelitis of the jaw

One of the very serious complications of advanced pulpitis is the penetration of infection not only into the periodontium, but also into the bone tissue of the jaw. At the same time, destructive processes develop in it, which are clearly visible on an x-ray.

Often the cause of the development of osteomyelitis is difficult-to-erupt wisdom teeth. This disease is characterized not only by local symptoms, but also by signs of poisoning of the body, such as headache, weakness, poor sleep, and fever.

Complications of sepsis

Complications from the respiratory system. Impaired ventilation of the lungs leads to an increase in the air-hematic barrier and, as a result, sweating of fluid into the alveoli. This further disrupts gas exchange and leads to the development of shock lung and respiratory distress syndrome, which is aggravated by fatigue of the respiratory muscles.
Kidney complications. There is a decrease in the filtration function of the kidneys due to damage to the tubules, which developed as a result of a decrease in pressure. Accompanied by a sharp decrease in urine output, proteinuria, and azotemia.
Impaired blood clotting due to a drop in platelet levels and the development of disseminated intravascular coagulation syndrome - a dangerous condition in which first there is massive formation of blood clots in the bloodstream, and then massive bleeding due to insufficiency of blood clotting factors.
Neurological complications. Long-term sepsis can lead to the development of polyneuropathy, which, in particular, leads to weakening of the respiratory muscles and the inability to breathe independently.
Septic shock is the most severe manifestation of sepsis, accompanied by a persistent decrease in blood pressure that is difficult to restore even with the use of fluid therapy and vasopressors. It develops due to the release of fluid from the blood vessels and due to general dehydration. At the same time, the violations are so severe that they can lead to the death of the patient from multiple organ failure. [13]

Sinusitis

Appears due to constant inflammation in the oral cavity. The risk is higher if the upper molars and premolars (these are closest to the maxillary sinuses) are affected. The infection penetrates the maxillary sinuses and affects them, causing severe headaches, high fever, and constant purulent mucous discharge from the nasopharynx. Without adequate treatment, sinusitis becomes chronic and can provoke meningitis, sepsis localized near the brain, and damage to nerve endings. It cannot be treated only by relieving symptoms: antibacterial therapy and endodontic treatment are needed.

Symptoms of chronic sepsis

Chronic sepsis occurs over a long period of time and is characterized by a sluggish course, the symptoms are mild. Therefore, diagnosing chronic sepsis is often difficult.

There is an opinion among experts that even acute sepsis should be considered as a two-phase disease with a chronic component. Even if the patient can be cured in the acute period, the disease often does not go away without a trace. Disorders persist that lead to chronic critical illnesses and can cause death.